Module Two

Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Rubrics

Behaviorism is a learning theory that focuses on the observable behavior changes influenced by external stimuli; it focuses on testing to observe the intended outcomes of behavioral changes.

Behaviorism in learning is more about the right or wrong answers; assessments that incorporate behaviorism commonly are given as multiple-choice and/or right or wrong answers.

Behaviorists argue that behavior is a learned habit; it can also be unlearned and replaced with a new one.

John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner are the two advocates of the behaviorism theory of learning.

Watson’s behaviorism involves external stimuli that “elicit certain responses” (Zhou and Brown, 2022, p. 6). Watson’s behaviorism is built upon Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning which refers to “learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior” (Zhou and Brown, 2022, p. 6).

Elements of behaviorism in education: rewarded response and system of reward and punishment.

Skinner’s behaviorism is built upon Watson/Pavlov’s behaviorism using operant conditioning that refers to “satisfying responses are conditioned”; thus, Operant behaviors (operant conditioning) – occur under conscious control, spontaneously or purposely. The consequences of these behaviors make up a learning process (Zhou and Brown, 2022).

Behaviorism application in the classroom:

  • Contracts – can be implemented in school and at home.
  • Consequences – positive and negative consequences.
  • Reinforcement.
  • Extinction.

Behavior modification – “a method of eliciting better classroom performance from reluctant students” (Zhou and Brown, 2022, p. 9).

Observational learning (Modelling) – a learning method where one is learning by observing others. Alex Bandura is the originator of this method, “of the many cues that influence behavior, at any point in time, none is more common than the actions of others” (Bandura, 1986, p. 45 qtd by Zhou and Brown, 2022).

Shaping – “the process of gradually changing the quality of a response” (Zhou and Brown, 2017, p. 9).

Cueing– perform an act at a specific time, verbally or non-verbally, to demonstrate appropriate behavior.

Social Cognitive Theory

The stage of Cognitive Development Theory is coming from social learning theory, developed by Alex Bandura with his Bobo doll experiment.

Alex Bandura claims that “Social Learning Theory shows a direct correlation between a person’s perceived self-efficacy and behavioral change (Zhou and Brown, 2022, p. 19).

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) – research on the child’s four stages of mental growth: (Brown, 2017, p. 13):

  • Sensorimotor stage – birth to age 2 – gaining motor control and learning about physical objects.
  • Preoperational stage – age 2 to 7 – preoccupied with verbal skills. “Intelligence is egocentric and intuitive, not logical” (Zhou and Brown, 2017, p.14).
  • Concrete operational stage – age 7 to 11 – deal with abstract concepts: numbers and relationship. “Thinking becomes less egocentric with increased awareness of external events, and involves concrete references” (Zhou and Brown, 2017, p. 14).
  • Formal operational stage – adolescence to adulthood – reason logically and systematically.

Piaget’s work provides a foundation for constructivism with the belief that knowledge is constructed.

Educational implications:

  • Instructional content must be consistent with the developmental level of learners.
  • Discovery learning.
  • Hands-on experiences.
  • For adolescents and adult learners – use visual aids and models, discussions on social, political, and cultural issues, teach broad concepts rather than facts, and situate in a context meaningful and relevant to the learner.

Social learning is also known as observational learning. Social learning theory emphasizes that “behavior, personal factors, and environmental factors are all equal and interlocking of each other” (Bandura, 1973, qtd by Zhou and Brown, 2022, p. 20).

Social cognitive theory is a bridge between behaviorism and cognitivism.

Human agency (Bandura, 1996) refers to a situation where individuals are “self-developing, self-regulating, self-reflecting, and proactive” (Zhou and Brown, 2017, p. 21).

The human agency operates within three nodes:

  1. Individual agency – a person influences the environment.
  2. Proxy agency – an effort to secure one’s interest.
  3. Collective agency – a group of people working together for a common goal.

Human agency’s four core properties:

  1. Intentionality
  2. Forethought
  3. Self-reactiveness
  4. Self-reflectiveness

Human agency’s four core properties:

  1. Intentionality
  2. Forethought
  3. Self-reactiveness
  4. Self-reflectiveness

Four human capabilities that are important to social cognitive theory:

  1. Symbolizing capability – direct and indirect events influence a person.
  2. Self-regulation capability – one can regulate one’s intention and behavior.
  3. Self-reflective capability – one can evaluate one’s thoughts and actions.
  4. Vicarious capability – the critical cognitive ability to adopt skills from available information.

Core Concepts of Social Cognitive Theory:

Modeling/Observational learning – the characteristics of the model, the attributes of the observer, and the consequences of the model’s action.

Four important component processes in SCT:

  1. Attentional process – cognitive and personal association to attract attention from learners.
  2. Retention process – involving memory; visual imagery and verbal coding are important in early development.
  3. Production (reproduction) process –
  4. Motivational process –
  5. Outcomes expectancies
  6. Self-efficacy – cognitive process.
  7. Self-regulation – includes both self-reinforcement and self-punishment. Cognitive process.

SCT is widely used in media, health education, and morality.

Assessing Learning/Rubrics – Why assessment is crucial in a learning process?

“Assessment is the most significant prompt for learning” (Boud, 1995, qtd by Ashford-Rowe, Herrington, and Brown, 2014, p. 205).

“… the result of our assessment influences our students for the rest of their lives and careers…” (Race, Brown, and Smith, qtd by Ashford-Rowe et al, 2014, p. 206). 

Eight (8) critical elements of authentic assessment from the literature:

  1. Authentic assessment should be challenging – the assessment should connect what is learned in school and real-world experience (Lund, 1997, qtd by Ashford-Rowe et al, 2014, p. 207).
  2. The outcome of an authentic assessment should be in the form of a performance or product (outcome) – students should be able to demonstrate the knowledge in their work (Ashford-Rowe et al, 2014).
  3. Authentic assessment design should ensure the transfer of knowledge – transferring the knowledge into real-world applications as conveyed by Tanner (1997) (Ashford-Rowe et al, 2014).  Furthermore, an authentic assessment should prepare students to use the knowledge not only to the focus one is learning but beyond it (Berlak, 1992, qtd by Ashford-Rowe et al, 2014). (I like this one, I think this is pertinent to the world today where many things are intertwined with each other. Thus, we are to be able to see beyond what is in front of us; instead, we ought to be able to see things as a whole — is this Systems Thinking?)
  4. Metacognition as a component of authentic assessment – metacognition is the higher thinking level, the goal of cognitivism. Metacognition can be achieved through critical reflection and self-evaluation (Ashford-Rowe, 2014).  Reflection is a medium for the student to “extend their learning experience beyond the classroom by giving them a meaning and place in a bigger picture” (Ashford-Rowe et al, 2014, pp. 208-209).
  5. The importance of a requirement to ensure accuracy in assessment performance – two-dimensional. The learner is not only understanding, developing, and applying the knowledge, but also demonstrating the developmental process that has led to the final assessment outcome; to determine how central-assessed skills are to the work-related application (Ashford-Rowe et al, 2014, p. 209).
  6. The role of the assessment environment and the tools used to deliver the assessment task – because recreating the working environment for training is not easy, thus, the extent of simulation to accommodate the assessment has to be determined (Ashford-Rowe et al, 2014).
  7. The importance of formally designing in an opportunity to discuss and provide feedback.
  8. The value of collaboration – constructivists value the importance of collaboration that they incorporate into the assessment process. Collaborative assessment allows teachers to observe students’ communication skills and teamwork skills, which are valuable in the workplace.

According to Brookhart (2010), constructing an assessment always involves three basic principles:

  1. Specify clearly and exactly what it is you want to assess.
  2. Design tasks or test items that require students to demonstrate this knowledge or skills.
  3. Decide what you will take as evidence of the degree to which students have shown this knowledge or skill.

To assess higher-level thinking involves three additional principles:

  1. Present something for students to think about, usually in the form of introductory text, visuals, scenarios, resource material, or problems of some sort.
  2. Use novel material – material that is new to students, not covered in class, and thus subject to recall.
  3. Distinguish between the level of difficulty (easy vs. hard) and level of thinking (lower order or recall vs. higher order), and control for each separately.

Constructed response and essay questions – designed to tap various kinds of reasoning. A rubric with a short scale. Start with the criterion, the type of thinking you intended to assess.

Performance assessment – to assess performance, papers, and projects. The NWREL Mathematics Problem-Solving Scoring is an example of this performance assessment.

Understanding E-learning Technologies-in-practice through Philosophies-in-practice (Heather Kanuka)

Three (3) philosophies of technology according to Dahlberg (2004):

  • Uses determinism – the way we use technology artifacts within learning & teaching. Tech artifacts are neutral tools that extend our capacities. Users have control over the artifacts. Clark’s (1983; 1985) “mere vehicles that deliver instructions but do not influence student achievement…” (Kanuka, 2008, p. 96). Dahlberg (2004) disagreed with the idea that tech is merely the delivery vehicle.
  • Technological determinism – the form and effects of technology artifacts on the uses and society. Dahlberg (2004), technological determinism view technology as a causal agent that has a big role in social changes (Kanuka, 2008, p. 100). De Castel, Byrson, and Jenson argue that “e-learning tech is yet another form of cultural colonization…” (Kanuka, 2008, p. 101). Marxist class analysis, view technology as an instrument of dominance by the advantaged class over others (Kanuka, 2008, p. 99). Technology can be a tool of oppression.
  • Social determinism – how social and cultural affects forms and uses of technology artifacts (Kanuka, 2008, pp. 95-96). The way people use technology is influenced by social and cultural backgrounds.

The advantages of e-learning technologies according to Kanuka (2008):

  1. It can effectively respond to global competition.
  2. Increase the quality of the learning experience.
  3. Remove situational barriers (such as geographic location?)
  4. More cost-effective.

Concerns for e-learning:

  1. Commercialization of teaching
  2. Lack of F2F between student and teacher
  3. Techno-centric over F2F
  4. Devaluation of discussion practices
  5. Complex and deep learning cannot be achieved.
  6. Technological uniformity (technological affordance?)
  7. Surveillance might violate privacy.

Why is knowing our philosophy important?

Because we then have the option to choose what methods (solo or combination) would work for our context.

Because philosophy provides us with background information that would help us to determine the pros and cons of the method before we apply it to the context

Because philosophy incorporates what technology is best implemented for our delivery.

A philosophy of teaching and technology can be defined as “a conceptual framework that embodies certain values from which we view the many aspects of education (Zinn, 1990, qtd by Kanuka, 2008, p. 94).

Philosophy of teaching:

Liberal/perennial – the oldest teaching philosophy in the Western world. Aims to: (1) to search the truth, and (2) to develop good and moral people (Kanuka, 2008, p. 102).

Liberal philosophy derives from Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

Instructional methods: (1) rigorous intellectual training – grammar and rhetoric, sciences, history, literature, and philosophy; (2) teaching focuses on the content with an emphasis on investigation, criticism, and communication; (3) humanities are believed to be superior to sciences; (4) teacher is prominent in content dissemination; and (5) students are the recipients of the dissemination (Kanuka, 2008, p. 102).

Role of technology: technological determinism.

Teaching implementation: (1) automated courses with modularized units; (2) tutorials and/or simulations; (3) goal is the development of student’s character; and (4) e-learning technology is seen as a disruption to the objectives of liberal teaching (Kanuka, 2008, p. 103).

Progressive – objectives: personal growth, maintenance, and promotion of a better society. Focuses on the movement toward democratic cooperation and personal enlightenment.

Three standard outcomes: (1) knowledge; (2) wisdom; and (3) skills.

Education is viewed as practical, pragmatic, and utilitarian (p. 103).

Instructional methods: (1) teachers have a role in social reform and reconstruction; (2) students and society are inseparable; (3) the student-teacher relationship as a partnership; (4) learning is something that students do for themselves (constructivism/connectivism?); (5) learning involves experience; (6) teacher’s role is to organize, stimulate, instigate, and evaluate through mediating and consultation; (7) interactive learning.

Instructional methods: (1) experimental; (2) problem-solving; (3) situation approaches to learning; (4) curriculum is organized around issues that students can relate to.

The role of technology uses determinism.

E-learning technology can be effectively used for progressive teaching resulting in a learner-centered environment.

Behaviorist– to bring observable changes in students’ behavior.

Behaviorist views society’s problem as caused by people’s behavior; thus, education is aimed to change people’s behavior to create a better society (behaviorist seems to view the world from a more negative angle although the argument is legit, but it feels more on the negative side (pessimistic?) instead of optimistic and sees people from a positive angle).

Instructional methods: (1) cleared learning objective at the beginning of the learning process or predetermined learning outcomes; (2) reward & punishment; (3) focus on the content with a subject-centered approach; (4) assessment; (5) teacher’s role is to create an elicit environment for behavior change; (6) teacher’s role is to control the environment; (7) student’s role is passive and recipients; (8) computer-based tutorial; (9) standardized course management system; and (10) feedback for correction (pp. 105-106).

Role of technology: technological determinism – e-learning technology helps to create effective and efficient learning experiences.

Humanist – aims to support individual growth and self-actualization. Learning is personal (not social, unlike social constructivism? But the instructional method emphasizes group activities? So which one? I am confused).

“Personal growth and development, self-actualization, and discovery are important learning and thinking skills” (Kanuka, 2008, p. 108).

Focus on freedom and autonomy, trust, active participation and cooperation, and self-directed learning (Wedemeyer?)

Instructional methods: (1) group activity; (2) group training; (3) sensitivity workshop (?); (4) transactional analysis; (5) self-directed learning; (6) experiment discovery; (5) students identify their own learning needs; (6) focus learning on students’ growth and development, NOT content, and affective rather than cognitive education; (7) student as the center of the learning process; (8) teachers are facilitators; (9) students are responsible for the learning, not teachers; and (10) personal growth and self-actualization as main goals.

Role of technology uses determinism – e-learning can, under conditions, can serve important roles in flexibility, convenience, and meeting the individual needs of students.

Radical – “to invoke change in the political, economic, and social order in society via the intersection of education and political action” (Kanuka, 2008, p. 108).

Instructional methods: (1) dialogic encounters that lead to praxis (what does it mean?); (2) problem posing; (3) problem identification; (4) discussion based on respect, communication, and solidarity; (5) collective dialog; (6) critical questionings; (7) teacher’s role is to raise students’ consciousness to political and social contradictions in their culture; (8) equal status between teacher and learner (?); and (9) students are considered an unfinished product, which teacher’s job is to shape them? (a bit like behaviorist?)

Role of technology: social determinism – e-learning technologies are companies and people with money owned; thus, it is conflicting with their objectives (Marxism?).

Analytical – “aims to develop rationality, which is assisted by the fearless transmission of educationally worthwhile knowledge” (Kanuka, 2008, p. 110).

Instructional methods: (1) the teacher is core in providing guidance and direction; (2) teachers make a choice of material that is worthwhile taught to students; (3) class discussion is ideal learning activity; (4) students are subordinate to teachers, and (5) society and education SHOULD NOT be linked especially in multicultural and plural society (opposite of social constructivism and connectivism?).

The role of technology uses determinism with conditions.

REFLECTION

Behaviorism and cognitivism share similarities from the aspect of the learners. Both behaviorism and cognitivism convey that learners are individuals; therefore, the process of learning is taking place within and in the individuals. For behaviorism, behavioral changes by external stimuli are the outcomes expected from this learning theory. On the other hand, cognitivism emphasizes that the process of learning is happening inside the learner’s cognitive; learning is an internal process of learners although Bandura’s social cognitivism argues that the environment also participates in influencing the overall learning process.

Behaviorism work for Special Ed, younger students because this phase of being human is one of the most critical phases of learning basic behaviors. The rewards & punishment method and modeling method, for example, are the common method used in parenting, I would argue. Behaviorism and cognitivism work in certain circumstances. Learning in behaviorism and cognitivism can be learned and unlearned. The timing seems important to ensure smooth delivery.

Bandura provides an example in his Social Cognitive Theory that children learn from their environment by duplicating what they see and observe and making it into their own. We often hear and are told to be conscious of what we say and do in front of the children for this reason, I would argue.

As for Piaget’s theory, I would argue, that his theory is important to set the foundation for children’s four stages of development although there are many children who excel above the provided standard. I really think that Piaget’s research comes in very handy in providing the foundation for learning so that any learning techniques and contents can be altered accordingly, depending on the learner’s development stage, to maximize the learning experience.

Although, arguably, in my opinion, there are similarities between behaviorism and cognitivism theory from the aspect of the learner as the focus of learning. I found it interesting that behaviorism and cognitivism advocates used different subjects/objects in their research. For example, as conveyed in Zhou and Brown’s journal article, I see that behaviorism originators such as Watson and Skinner used animals as their research objects, as opposed to Piaget and Bandura, cognitivism originators, who used humans as their subjects. It strikes me that the fundamental difference of their research subjects/objects actually demonstrates how learners are deemed as objects in behaviorism theory. I feel like behaviorism’s black box can also be Play-Doh, the wax-like compound children use to make arts and crafts. The Play-Doh compound is shaped the way children want it to be.

Furthermore, I personally like Bandura’s thoughts on human agency. I believe that human agency is an important part of being human. I learned that many social changes in our society are prompted by the human agency towards the issues, for example, the right to vote for women was prompted by the human agency that women are not second-class citizens in society.

For assessment learning, I would argue that assessment is critical to the success of the overall learning process. In my personal opinion, assessment is the reason for my learning progress. I always look forward to my assessments. I wanted to hear from the subject matter experts, such as teachers, about how I do on my assignments. I surely want to know more about what I can do better. It is also nice to have acknowledgment when I do well. Assessments are intended to help learners improve their performance. Assessments generate motivation to do better, ideally. Assessments help learners to be on track with their goals.

I personally prefer formative assessment compared to summative one. Formative assessment allows me to detail my progress in each module, for example. I believe that information is built upon one another; thus, knowing the detailed progress of my learning helps me to see the bigger picture even better. I know that both assessments are, perhaps, equally important to the overall success of learning. Summative assessments are the kind of assessment that evaluates how much understanding a student has obtained from his/her learning. I guess I am not much of a fan of final exams or standardized testing.

References

Ashford-Rowe, K., Herrington, J., & Brown, C. (2014). Establishing the critical elements that determine authentic assessment. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 39(2), 205-222. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2013.819566

Brookhart, S. M. (2010). How to assess higher-order thinking skills in your classroom. http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109111/chapters/General_Principles_for_Assessing_Higher-Order_Thinking.aspx

Kanuka, H. (2008). Understanding e-learning technologies in practice through philosophies-in-practice. In The theory and practice of online learning (pp. 91-118). Athabasca University Press.

Zhou, M., & Brown, D. (2017). Educational learning theories (2nd ed.). https://learn.umgc.edu/content/enforced/732486-022082-01-2232-GO1-9040/Zhou_Brown_2017_Educational_Learning_Theories_2nd%20Edition.pdf?_&d2lSessionVal=r4qDkpL56wOt0Ym1yz8sDGEIN&ou=732486

Author: Nia English

An MDE candidate with a loving husband and three wonderful children. A lifelong learner who thrives to live to the fullest and with more purposes.